I. A. Richards Principles of Literary Criticism Chapter 1, 2 & 34

PRINCIPLES OF LITERARY CRITICISM

Summary by I.A Richards

I.A Richards

I. A. Richards, was an English educator, literary critic, poet.

His work contributed to the foundations of the New Criticism, a formalist movement in literary theory which emphasized the close reading of a literary text, especially poetry, in an effort to discover how a work of literature functions as a self-contained and self-referential æsthetic object.

Richards is best known for advancing the close reading of literature and for articulating the theoretical principles upon which these skills lead to "practical criticism"

Chapter 1 

The book "Principles of Literary Criticism" (1924) is written by an English educator, literary critic and rhetorician Ivor Armstrong Richards (1893-1979). I.A Richard's works deal with new criticism, which is a formalist movement in literary theory that was popular in the middle decades of the twentieth century especially in American literary studies. In addition, LA Richards has taken a scientific approach in literary criticism. In the chapter one of the book "Principles of Literary Criticism" (1924) called "The Chaos of Critical Theories". Richard asks many questions related to 'value' like: what gives the experience of reading a certain poem its value? How is this experience better than another? Why prefer this picture to that? In which ways should we listen to music so as to receive the most valuable moments? Why is one opinion about works of art not as good as another?

Besides, I.A Richards has critiqued that apart from above mentioned fundamental questions, criticism must also be able to answer preliminary questions like: what is a picture, a poem, a piece of music? How can experiences be compared? And What is value? LA Richards is stuck to his central question of what is the value of the arts and why are they worth devotion of the keenest hours of the best minds, and what is their place in the system of human endeavours? Furthermore, Richards stated that perhaps the literature of criticism is the wrong place to expect such kinds of inquiries.

Towards the end of chapter one, LA Richards elucidates about aestheticism. Aestheticism was an art movement which privileged the aesthetic value of literature, music as well as arts over their socio-political functions especially in the late nineteenth century in Europe. It believes art should be produced to be beautiful, rather than to serve a moral, allegorical, and didactic purpose. It was downrightly influenced by "Art for art's sake".

Chapter 2

Richards begins by exploring the nature of literary criticism. He argues that criticism should be analytical and objective, aiming to understand and evaluate a work of literature.

He emphasizes the importance of the reader's role in interpreting and evaluating a text. The reader's emotional and intellectual response is central to the process of criticism.

Richards outlines the critical process, which involves selecting, interpreting, and evaluating a work of literature. This process requires careful attention to details and an open-minded approach.

He discusses the concept of ambiguity in literature and how it can be a source of both richness and difficulty in interpretation. Ambiguity can lead to various possible meanings in a text.

Richards argues that critics must be sensitive to the nuances of language, as words and their arrangement are essential to the art of literature. He emphasizes the importance of precision in criticism.

 Richards introduces the idea of "aesthetic emotions" or the emotions experienced when engaging with a work of art. These emotions are different from everyday feelings and are a key component of literary appreciation.

He explores the concept of literary value and the criteria by which a work of literature can be judged. He argues that value is determined by the quality of the reader's emotional and intellectual experience.

 Richards addresses the balance between subjectivity and objectivity in criticism. He suggests that while interpretation is subjective, evaluation should be as objective as possible.

The chapter concludes by emphasizing the need for unity in criticism, where the reader's emotional response and the critical analysis work together to appreciate and evaluate literature.

Chapter 34

In the "Chapter 34" of the book "Principles of Literary Criticism" (1924), I.A Richard has delineated about the two functions of language. Richard's works founded the new movement in criticism called "New Criticism".

It notes that neither the writer nor the reader's perspective matters in criticism except the "text". For example: a text is kept on the table, and you have no idea about it, but it has been written on the book that author is: Christopher Marlowe. Then, you may make a preconceived idea that the book might be related to drama written in Elizabethan Age and it might be

It notes that neither the writer nor the reader's perspective matters in criticism except the "text". For example: a text is kept on the table, and you have no idea about it, but it has been written on the book that author is: Christopher Marlowe. Then, you may make a preconceived idea that the book might be related to drama written in Elizabethan Age and it might be a notable literary work. In reality, you have not even opened as well as read a page of the book. Mere author's name has given you countless thoughts and perceptions. In addition, many people are talking about that book, and you will think that it might be a noteworthy creation.

Therefore, New Criticism propagated that one should neither focus on writer nor the reader. Rather it should focus solely on the "text". I.A Ricahrd is the first critic who brought "Psychology" in literary criticism. In an experiment done by I.A Richards on his students, he has given a poem to analyse by removing the poet's name called "Henry Wadsworth Longfellow". As "New Criticism" does not consider "writer and reader". If the writer's name is given, then the students may make countless perceptions about the text and it will ultimately fail to analyse independently.

According to I.A Richards there are two uses of language:

Two Uses Of Language

(1) Scientific Use

(2) Emotive Use

A statement which may be used for the sake of reference, true or false, is the scientific use of language. 

When the reference is used for the sake of arousing emotions and attitude, it is called emotive use of language.

In simple words:

SCIENTIFIC USE: When scientific language is used, no emotion and feeling can be found in that particular text or writing. Rather rational, logical and relevant points are included and discussed in the scientific use of language. Scientific use of language is found in Law, Medicine, Constitution, Scientific works etc to gain knowledge and pragmatic use.

EMOTIVE USE: When emotions, feelings and thoughts are immensely used in a specific text, then that will be termed as "Emotive Use of Language". For example: in literature and poetry; one cannot use "scientific language". Therefore, one must use words related to emotions, thoughts and feelings to make it more comprehensible to the reader.

The distinction between these two uses of language is simple.

Broadly Speaking, when language is used for scientific purposes, it requires complete facts, truths and undistorted references as well as absence of fictions. Besides, if it is used for emotive cause, then it can be true and false or both. Richards elucidates that scientific usage of language or word is for the sake of references they promote. For example: using the word "fire" in scientific text will signify the real object. But the same word may mean "anger", "disturbance" or "heartbreak" in poetry through emotive use of language. "My heart is on fire" poetic line is an emotive use of language, where the poet is not saying it has caught fire rather it is symbolising "intense liking of something". In the poem "A Red, Red Rose" by Robert Burns, the line:

"My Love is Like a Red, Red Rose" is an emotive use of language by the poet, where the poet is symbolically saying that his/her love is just like a red rose, that has just emerged from the ground and is utterly new, fresh and young. This same line does not have any scientific significance.

Furthermore, science makes "statements" but poetry makes "pseudo- statements". The scientific statement is justified and proven by testimony, and it can always be verified by a reference to its original. In poetry, the said lines are hard to prove. It is just a statement in name. It is rarely true. Moreover, emotive use of language has the larger purpose of evoking an emotion or attitude of mind which the poet considers valuable but in reality; it has no verbal equivalents. Therefore, the poet uses emotive language to evoke emotion indirectly.

Over and above, Richard considers the connotations of the word "truth" in criticism. In literary criticism, the common use is "acceptability" or "probability". For example: "Robinson Crusoe" is true in the sense of the acceptability of things we are told, in the interest of the narrative whether or not such a person existed in real life is not significant to the "truth" of the novel. Therewithal, a happy ending to "King Lear" or "Don Quixote" would be false as it would be 'unacceptable'. In this sense "truth" will be inequivalent to "internal necessity" or "rightness". I.A Richard says:

"The statements in poetry are there as a means to manipulation and expression of feelings and attitudes." Poetry communicates feelings and emotions. Therefore, poetic truth is always different from scientific truth. It is as a matter of fact, an emotional belief than intellectual belief. Consequently, poetry cannot be expected to provide us with reasoning and knowledge, nor is there any intellectual doctrine in poetry. Precisely, poetry only speaks to the impulses not mind. It's speech, literal or figurative, logical or illogical is faithful to its experience as long as it evokes a similar experience in the reader. A poem, therefore, as defined by I.A Richards, is a class of experiences "composed of all experiences, occasioned by the words" which are similar to "the original experience of the poet".

In "The Two Uses of Language", I.A Richard mentions about the two uses of language as following;

"The scientific use of language not only must the references be correct for success, but the connections and relations of references to one another must be of the kind which we call logical. They must not get in one another's way, and must be so organized as not to impede further reference. But for emotive purposes logical arrangement is not necessary. It may be and often is an obstacle. For what matters is that the series of attitudes due to the references should have their own proper organization, their own emotional interconnection, and this often has no dependence upon the logical relations of such references as may be concerned in bringing the attitudes into being."

Critical Analysis

"Principles of Literary Criticism" has had a lasting impact on the field of literary criticism. While some critics and theorists have praised Richards' ideas, others have engaged with his work critically, using it as a starting point for their own theories and approaches to literary analysis. It remains a foundational text that continues to be discussed and debated in the context of evolving literary and critical theories.

Other critics primarily influenced by his writings also included T.S. Eliot, Cleanth Brooks and Allen Tate. Later critics who refined the formalist approach to New Criticism by actively rejecting his psychological emphasis included, besides Brooks and Tate, John Crowe Ransom, W. K. Wimsatt, R. P. Blackmur, and Murray Krieger.